This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Parenting (293) Quantified Self and Wellness (87) Caregiving and Parenting for Chronic Pediatric Diseases (107) General Parenting Education and Training (74) Cross-Sectional Studies in Public Health (364)

Published on in Vol 8 (2025)

Preprints (earlier versions) of this paper are available at https://preprints.jmir.org/preprint/67872, first published .
Association Between the Parenting Competence and Quality of Life of Family Caregivers of Children Aged 0-3 Years: Cross-Sectional Study

Association Between the Parenting Competence and Quality of Life of Family Caregivers of Children Aged 0-3 Years: Cross-Sectional Study

Association Between the Parenting Competence and Quality of Life of Family Caregivers of Children Aged 0-3 Years: Cross-Sectional Study

Authors of this article:

Wei He1 Author Orcid Image ;   Le-shan Zhou2 Author Orcid Image ;   Long-yi Hu2 Author Orcid Image
Article Authors Cited by Tweetations Metrics

    1Department of Nursing, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China

    2Department of Clinical Nursing, Xiangya School of Nursing, Central South University, 172 Tong Zi Po Rd., Yuelu District, Changsha, China

    Corresponding Author:

    Long-yi Hu, BMed


    Background: The quality of life (QoL) for family caregivers significantly influences not only their own well-being but also the well-being of children aged 0‐3 years. Competence stands out as a crucial subjective factor that impacts this QoL.

    Objective: This study aimed to examine the factors affecting the QoL of caregivers of children aged 0‐3 years and its correlation with parenting competency.

    Methods: Caregivers of children aged 0‐3 years from the child health department of a tertiary hospital in Changsha, Hunan Province, were chosen as the study sample through convenience sampling. The study investigated the relationship between parenting competency and the caregivers’ QoL, utilizing general information, the parenting competency scale, and the family caregiver quality of life scale.

    Results: In this study, 291 family caregivers, including 13 fathers and 278 mothers of children aged 0‐3 years, were evaluated. The mean (SD) parenting competence score was 68.70 (9.816) and the mean (SD) QoL score was 56.81 (8.922). It was found that higher caregiver QoL scores were significantly associated with greater parenting competence (R=0.665, P<.001). Furthermore, each dimension of parenting competence demonstrated a significant positive correlation with each dimension of the QoL (P<.001).

    Conclusions: The data suggest a notable association between parenting competence and QoL among family caregivers of children aged 0‐3 years. This association has implications for improving fertility rates, as enhancing parenting competence may reduce childcare-related stress and thereby enhance the overall QoL.

    JMIR Pediatr Parent 2025;8:e67872

    doi:10.2196/67872

    Keywords

    child; toddler; pediatric; infant; quality of life; QoL; family caregiver; caregiver; well-being; competence; quality of life factors; parenting competency; correlation; child health department; tertiary hospital; convenience sampling; parenting competency scale; family caregiver quality of life scale 


    Quality of life (QoL) constitutes a subjective evaluation of one’s place in life in the context of one’s personal goals and value systems [1], spanning physical, social, spiritual, and psychological domains. The QoL of family caregivers for children aged 0‐3 years not only mirrors the caregivers’ own life quality, correlating with superior physical health and reduced incidence of anxiety or depression [2], but also influences the quality of care provided to the children [3]. Importantly, caregivers with a higher QoL tend to deliver improved care, which in turn enhances the life quality of children aged 0‐3 years [4]. Consequently, evaluating the QoL is a crucial aspect in the study of family caregiving for this age group.

    The QoL is profoundly influenced by a myriad of factors. Among these, for family caregivers, the challenges posed by childcare significantly impact their well-being. Parenting stress is associated with reduced life satisfaction, deteriorated mental health, and a diminished overall QoL [5]. The QoL is inherently subjective, and thus, subjective factors often provide more reliable indicators than objective ones [6]. A critical subjective factor is the sense of competence in parenting, which encompasses an individual’s comprehensive assessment of their effectiveness within the parenting role, particularly in terms of parenting efficacy and satisfaction [7]. Parents with high parenting competence typically display greater confidence and motivation when addressing and resolving challenges that arise in the course of childrearing [8]. For children between the ages of 0‐3 years—a crucial phase in developmental terms—the pressures of parenting are acute. The research hypothesizes a correlation between the QoL and parenting ability, suggesting that enhancing parenting competence can alleviate parental stress and improve the QoL.

    Recent studies on the QoL of child caregivers focused on parents caring for children with special needs or intergenerational caregivers [9]. However, they overlooked the experiences of typical parental caregivers. The purpose of this study was to explore the connection between parent competence and the QoL among caregivers of children aged 0‐3 years. It also aimed to offer insights and guidance for the development of effective parenting strategies and interventions for families with children in this age group.


    Design

    The convenience sampling method was employed to select eligible family caregivers of children aged 0‐3 years from the Child Health Department at a tertiary hospital in Changsha, for a questionnaire survey conducted from January to April 2024.

    Participants

    According to the widely recognized method for estimating sample size, it is recommended to have a sample size that is 5 to 10 times the number of variables under study [10]. This research encompasses 8 demographic and disease-related variables and 6 additional dimensions from the scale, resulting in a total of 14 variables. Consequently, an initial sample size of 70 to 140 participants is suggested. To accommodate a potential 10% loss of samples and the presence of invalid questionnaires, the minimum sample size should be adjusted to range from 77 to 154 participants. In this study, a total of 300 questionnaires were disseminated; 9 of them were excluded due to incomplete questionnaires.

    The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) guardians of children aged 0‐3 years acting as primary caregivers; (2) possessing adequate cognitive communication skills; (3) consenting to participate in the study; and (4) capable of independently completing the survey. Conversely, exclusion criteria encompassed: (1) individuals with psychiatric disorders or those averse to collaboration; (2) family members of sick children; and (3) participants withdrawing for various reasons (for example, not having time to complete all the questionnaires, or unwilling to continue participating midway).

    To guarantee the integrity of the data collection process, the investigator remained present to assist participants with any queries and to verify that the questionnaires were filled out completely.

    Ethical Considerations

    The study was approved by the Ethics Committee (No. E2023121). The data are anonymized. The participants were informed of the purpose and procedures of the study prior to participation, and we obtained informed consent from the parents. The participants did not receive any remuneration.

    Data Collection and Measurements

    General Information

    This information encompassed the relationship with the child, marital status of the child’s parents, family structure, child’s age, identity of the primary family caregiver, physical health of both the child and the caregiver, method of the child’s conception, and feeding practices employed.

    Parenting Competence Scale

    The Parenting Competence Scale was developed by Gibaud-Wallston and Wandersman [11] in 1978 and translated by Yang et al [12]. The scale comprises 17 items, bifurcated into two principal dimensions: efficacy and satisfaction. The efficacy component encompasses eight items that gauge parents’ self-perceptions of their parenting skills, whereas the satisfaction component comprises nine items that assess parents’ contentment with their role as caregivers. The scale ranged from “1: Totally Disagree” to “6: Totally Agree.” The scores fluctuate between 17 and 102, with elevated scores mirroring enhanced parenting competence. The reliability of the scale is substantiated by a Cronbach α coefficient of 0.80.

    Family Caregiver Specific QoL Scale

    The Family Caregiver Specific QoL scale, developed by Nauser et al [13] and transcribed by Hyland Qian [14], was employed to assess the QoL in family caregivers. It comprised 16 items that span four dimensions: physical, social, spiritual, and psychological well-being. Four entries for each dimension. All domains carry equal importance. Employing a 5-point Likert scale, it allows respondents to answer with options ranging from “1: Strongly Disagree to “5: Strongly Agree.” Items that were negatively expressed were reverse-scored. The scale scores spanned from 16 to 80, with higher scores suggesting an enhanced QoL for the caregiver. The Cronbach α for the Chinese version of the scale was 0.84, further confirming its reliability and validity. This scale has been applied in family caregivers for children with heart disease, premature infants, and newborns [15,16].

    Statistical Analyses

    Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS software (version 24.0; IBM Corp). The general information was analyzed descriptively using frequency counts (component ratios). The QoL and parenting competence scores of family caregivers were characterized using means and standard deviations, provided they adhered to a normal distribution. One-way analyses were carried out to identify factors influencing QoL using t tests or ANOVA. The association between the QoL and parenting competence of family caregivers was assessed using the Pearson correlation analyses.


    General Information

    A total of 300 parents participated in the survey, of which 291 responses were valid, yielding a questionnaire recovery rate of 97%. The participants comprised 13 fathers and 278 mothers, as detailed in Table 1.

    Table 1. General information (N=291).
    Itemsn (%)
    Relationship
    Father13 (4.47)
    Mother278 (95.53)
    Family structure
    Nuclear family170 (58.42)
    Stem family118 (40.55)
    Single-parent family3 (1.03)
    Marital status
    Married289 (99.31)
    Divorcee2 (0.69)
    Child’s age
    0‐6 months233 (80.07)
    ~1 year old30 (10.31)
    ~2 years old16 (5.50)
    ~3 years old12 (4.12)
    Caregivers’ physical health
    Good247 (84.88)
    Not well44 (15.12)
    Child’s physical condition
    Good275 (94.50)
    Not well16 (5.50)
    Pregnancy method
    Planned264 (90.72)
    Assisted reproduction22 (7.56)
    Unplanned5 (1.72)
    Feeding style
    Exclusive breastfeeding124 (42.61)
    Artificial feeding28 (9.62)
    Mixed feeding139 (47.77)

    Scores of Parenting Competence and QoL

    In this study, we evaluated the parenting competence of family caregivers for children aged 0‐3 years, finding an average (SD) score of 68.70 (9.816), while the average (SD) QoL score stood at 56.81 (8.922). Detailed scores for each dimension are depicted in Table 2.

    Table 2. Score of parenting competence and quality of life (N=291).
    ItemsRangeMedian (P25 ,P75)Mean (SD)
    Parenting competence34, 10168 (62,75)68.70 (9.816)
    Efficacy17, 4733 (29,39)32.98 (5.604)
    Satisfaction17, 5435 (32,29)35.72 (4.975)
    Quality of life20, 8057 (50, 63)56.81 (8.922)
    Physical well-being6, 2014 (12,16)14.23 (2.568)
    Spiritual well-being4, 2016 (13,16)15.10 (2.987)
    Social well-being4, 2014 (12,16)13.90 (2.981)
    Psychological well-being4, 2013 (12,16)13.59 (3.391)

    Association Between Caregiver Parenting Competence and QoL

    Notably, there was a significant positive correlation between the caregivers’ QoL score and parenting competence (r=0.665, P<.001).Positive correlations were consistently observed across all dimensions of parenting competence and the corresponding dimensions of QoL (P<.001), as detailed in Table 3.

    Table 3. Correlation analysis of parenting competence and quality of life (N=291).
    Parenting competenceQuality of lifeEfficacySatisfactionPhysical well-beingSpiritual well-beingSocial well-beingPsychological well-being
    Parenting competence1N/AaN/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/A
    Quality of life.665b1N/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/A
    Efficacy.936b.634b1N/AN/AN/AN/AN/A
    Satisfaction.919b.598b.7211N/AN/AN/AN/A
    Physical well-being.481b.815b.461b.430b1N/AN/AN/A
    Spiritual well-being.583b.711b.502b.584b.424b1N/AN/A
    Social well-being.373b.748b.369b.319b.536b.437b1N/A
    Psychological well-being.545b.731b.553b.452b.542b.284b.298b1

    anot available

    bP<.001


    Main Findings

    The parenting competence scores of family caregivers for children aged 0‐3 years exhibited a positive correlation with the caregivers’ QoL (R=0.665, P<.001). Additionally, scores across all domains of parenting competence demonstrated positive correlations with scores across all dimensions of QoL (P<.001).

    General Information on Family Caregivers

    Composition of Family Caregivers

    In this study, out of 291 participants, 278 were mothers (95.53%); therefore, mothers emerged as the predominant family caregivers. Consequently, efforts to enhance the QoL for family caregivers should prioritize understanding and addressing the experiences and sentiments of maternal caregivers. Out of 291 families, there are 170 nuclear families (58.4%) and 118 stem families (40.6%). Stem families refer to families where grandparents, parents, and children live together. This type of family is common. Although the mother is the primary caregiver, in China, grandparents are usually more involved in parenting. There may be differences in parenting concepts between parents and grandparents. Future research could explore the impact of grandparents’ involvement in parenting on family dynamics.

    Level of Caregiver Parenting Competence and QoL

    Parenting Competence of Family Caregivers

    The mean (SD) parenting competence score among family caregivers of children aged 0‐3 years was 68.70 (9.816). This study is pioneering in investigating the parenting competence for this age group, as the majority of existing research has primarily concentrated on children age 1 years, particularly the initial 42 days postdelivery, thereby limiting comparative analysis [17]. The present study revealed a medium level of parenting competence. The efficacy and satisfaction dimensions had different numbers of entries and were not comparable.

    QoL of Family Caregivers

    In this study, the mean (SD) caregiver QoL score was found to be 56.81 (8.922). Given the plethora of scales designed to measure caregiver QoL, particularly those catered to children with special needs, direct comparisons with other studies are challenging [18]. Among the four dimensions assessed, family caregivers exhibited the highest scores in psychological well-being. Parent-child interactions appear to bolster parent-infant attachment, especially during early development stages (0‐3 y). Therefore, promoting these interactions within families could be an effective strategy for future interventions [19]. The social and psychological dimensions of QoL were notably deficient, so strengthening social support for caregivers of children aged 0 to 3 years and addressing their related psychological issues is a way to improve the QoL for caregivers [20].

    Association Between Caregiver Parenting Competence and QoL

    Impact of Parenting Efficacy on QoL

    Research has consistently demonstrated a positive correlation between parenting efficacy and the QoL of caregivers [21-23]. Enhanced parenting efficacy not only bolsters cognitive and behavioral functioning but also catalyzes improvements in physical and mental health. Alam et al [24] found that caregivers are susceptible to physiological issues such as sleep disorders, weight loss, and fatigue due to their caregiving responsibilities. According to Bandura’s theory [25], parents with a heightened sense of efficacy are more adept at self-regulation and self-management when confronted with challenging parenting scenarios, such as a decline in the child’s health, thereby enjoying a higher physiological QoL. In terms of mental aspects, the task of caregivers is to manage the daily needs of children aged 0 to 3 years, take care of family members, and participate in decision-making, which may lead to mental health challenges. The research implies that individuals possessing a stronger sense of efficacy may exhibit an enhanced ability to mitigate the detriments of negative mental health [26]. Confronted with obstacles in parenting, such as disputes concerning educational philosophies, they are inclined towards adopting positive coping tactics to regulate their emotional state and promote superior mental health quality. From a social perspective, an unwavering focus on infants and toddlers might curtail a carer’s independence, consequently posing adverse effects on their psychosocial development. Numerous investigations establish a linkage between social support and QoL [27-29]. Such findings indicate that the QoL could potentially intermediate the relationship between a collective sense of efficacy and parenting proficiency. In other words, caregivers possessing a stronger sense of efficacy are likely to be more assertive in pursuing social support, are more equipped to furnish social support, and possess a better overall social QoL. The psychological state of a caregiver is heavily influenced in their interaction with children aged 0‐3 years [30]. Factors such as concern for the child’s health, challenges in transitioning to caregiving roles, and understanding the child’s expressions may catalyze anxiety and depression among caregivers. Loh et al [31] proposed that caregivers who are capable of effectively managing, adjusting to, and surmounting difficulties experience lesser burden and exhibit fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression. Furthermore, these caregivers tend to have a better social QoL due to their increased sense of efficacy.

    Impact of Childcare Satisfaction on QoL

    The positive correlation between childcare satisfaction and caregiver QoL has been well-documented. Numerous studies have examined the correlation between satisfaction and the QoL, typically comparing the two as indicators for assessing outcomes [32,33]. However, Sansó et al [34] postulated a direct correlation between life satisfaction and the QoL. Parenting satisfaction represents an individual’s comprehensive evaluation of their parenting role. Physiologically, parents experiencing high levels of satisfaction are less inclined to engage in self-reproach, exhibit reduced susceptibility to fatigue and burnout while attending to children aged 0‐3 years, and provide superior care, thereby enhancing their physiological QoL. Psychologically, these parents demonstrate a decreased likelihood of experiencing frustration and negative emotions when confronted with childcare challenges. Moreover, the subjective experience of well-being is recognized as a fundamental element for maintaining high mental health and satisfaction [35]. Consequently, parents who report satisfaction tend to exhibit a lower threshold for experiencing pleasure, reduced vulnerability to mental or psychological issues, and an elevated mental and psychological QoL. Socially, in line with societal expectations in many cultures, Chinese parents who fall short in their parenting duties are held accountable by various segments of society. Parents with high parenting satisfaction are more likely to cultivate higher-quality social connections, receive enhanced social support for their childcare responsibilities, and enjoy a superior quality of social life.

    Limitations

    This study employed a convenience sampling method from a single hospital, limiting its representativeness. Future research should consider stratified sampling across various countries, hospitals, and communities. Additionally, investigating the mediating factors between parenting competence and QoL may offer valuable insights for further studies.

    Conclusion

    The study found that family caregivers of children aged 0‐3 years exhibit a correlation between parenting competence and QoL, with all dimensions showing significant correlations. Health care professionals have the potential to enhance QoL by fostering parenting competence.

    Acknowledgments

    This work was supported by Hunan Women's Studies Association (22ZDB07).

    Conflicts of Interest

    None declared.

    1. Wright JD. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. 2015. URL: https:/​/www.​sciencedirect.com/​referencework/​9780080970875/​international-encyclopedia-of-the-social-and-behavioral-sciences [Accessed 2025-06-09]
    2. Borstelmann NA, Gray TF, Gelber S, et al. Psychosocial issues and quality of life of parenting partners of young women with breast cancer. Support Care Cancer. May 2022;30(5):4265-4274. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    3. Witt S, Kolb B, Bloemeke J, Mohnike K, Bullinger M, Quitmann J. Quality of life of children with achondroplasia and their parents - a German cross-sectional study. Orphanet J Rare Dis. Aug 9, 2019;14(1):194. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    4. Sun Y, Ji M, Leng M, Li X, Zhang X, Wang Z. Comparative efficacy of 11 non-pharmacological interventions on depression, anxiety, quality of life, and caregiver burden for informal caregivers of people with dementia: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud. May 2022;129:104204. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    5. Suonpera E, Lanceley A, Ni Y, Marlow N. Parenting stress and health-related quality of life among parents of extremely preterm born early adolescents in England: a cross-sectional study. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. Apr 18, 2024;109(3):253-260. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    6. Boettcher J, Boettcher M, Wiegand-Grefe S, Zapf H. Being the pillar for children with rare diseases-a systematic review on parental quality of life. Int J Environ Res Public Health. May 8, 2021;18(9):4993. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    7. Johnston C, Mash EJ. A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. J Clin Child Psychol. Jun 1989;18(2):167-175. [CrossRef]
    8. Holley CE, Haycraft E. Mothers’ perceptions of self-efficacy and satisfaction with parenting are related to their use of controlling and positive food parenting practices. Matern Child Nutr. Jan 2022;18(1):e13272. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    9. Feng Y, Zhou X, Qin X, et al. Parental self-efficacy and family quality of life in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder in China: the possible mediating role of social support. J Pediatr Nurs. 2022;63:159-167. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    10. Ni P, Chen JL, Liu N. The sample size estimation hi quantitative nursing research. Chinese Journal of Nursing. 2010;45(4):378-380. [CrossRef]
    11. Gibaud-Wallston J, Wandersman LP. Development and utility of the parenting sense of competence scale. The American Psychological Association in American Psychological Association; 1978. Presented at: Proceedings of the American Psychological Association in American Psychological Association.
    12. Yang X, Gao LL, Zhang Z, Wu D, Zhang Y. The reliability and validity of the Chinese version of parenting sense of competence scale. Chinese Journal of Nursing. 2014;49(7):881-885.
    13. Nauser JA, Bakas T, Welch JL. A new instrument to measure quality of life of heart failure family caregivers. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2011;26(1):53-64. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    14. Qian HL, Wang JQ, Shen WQ, Mu AF, Yu YM. The Chinese version of family caregiver-specific quality of life scale: validation among community family caregivers of chronic heart failure patients. Journal of Nursing Science. 2012;27(21):85-87.
    15. Shen L, Zhang L, Tao Y, Tang YJ, Bao MJ, Lu HZ. Study on correlation between care burden and quality of life of family caregivers of children with tuberculosis. Chinese Journal of Antituberculosis. 2018;40(10):1118-1124.
    16. Xu HJ, Zhang D, Du ZY, Gao YY, Yao WX. Mediating effects of coping styles and social support on parental care burden and quality of life. Chinese Journal of Birth Health And Heredity. 2024;32(1):200-204. [CrossRef]
    17. Li Y, Zhang QY, Zhang CH. Influencing factors of maternal parenting sense of competence in China: a meta-analysis. Journal of International Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2023;50(6):711-717.
    18. Suen MW, Ningrum V, et al. The association between parenting stress, positive reappraisal coping, and quality of life in parents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) children: a systematic review. Healthcare (Basel). Dec 28, 2021;10(1):52. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    19. Nordahl D, Rognmo K, Bohne A, et al. Adult attachment style and maternal-infant bonding: the indirect path of parenting stress. BMC Psychol. Jun 8, 2020;8(1):58. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    20. Wang Z, Wang L, Chang S, Wang H. The mediating effect of parenting stress on the relationship between social support and quality of life in parents of children with autistic spectrum disorder: a meta-analytic structural equation modeling. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13(713620):713620. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    21. Nelligan RK, Hinman RS, Kasza J, Crofts SJC, Bennell KL. Effects of a self-directed web-based strengthening exercise and physical activity program supported by automated text messages for people with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. Jun 1, 2021;181(6):776-785. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    22. Huang Z, Liu T, Chair SY. Effectiveness of nurse-led self-care interventions on self-care behaviors, self-efficacy, depression and illness perceptions in people with heart failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud. Aug 2022;132(104255):104255. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    23. Melgarejo González-Conde V, Pérez-Fernández V, Ruiz-Esteban C, Valverde-Molina J. Impact of Self-efficacy on the quality of life of children with asthma and their caregivers. In: Bronconeumol A, editor. Arch Bronconeumol (Engl Ed). Apr 2019;55(4):189-194. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    24. Alam S, Hannon B, Zimmermann C. Palliative care for family caregivers. J Clin Oncol. Mar 20, 2020;38(9):926-936. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    25. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol Rev. Mar 1977;84(2):191-215. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    26. Mo PKH, Fong VWI, Song B, Di J, Wang Q, Wang L. Association of Perceived threat, negative emotions, and self-efficacy with mental health and personal protective behavior among chinese pregnant women during the COVID-19 pandemic: cross-sectional survey study. J Med Internet Res. Apr 12, 2021;23(4):e24053. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    27. Jafari A, Naddafi F, Gholian-Aval M, Tehrani H. Relationship between diabetes health literacy, distress, burnout, social support, complications, self-care behaviors, and quality of life among patients with type 2 diabetes: a path analysis study. Diabetol Metab Syndr. Jul 5, 2024;16(1):150. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    28. Davidson Arad B, McLeigh JD, Katz C. Perceived collective efficacy and parenting competence: the roles of quality of life and hope. Fam Process. Mar 2020;59(1):273-287. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    29. Cahuas A, Marenus MW, Kumaravel V, et al. Perceived social support and COVID-19 impact on quality of life in college students: an observational study. Ann Med. Dec 2023;55(1):136-145. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    30. Bolbocean C, Andújar FN, McCormack M, Suter B, Holder JL Jr. Health-related quality of life in pediatric patients with syndromic autism and their caregivers. J Autism Dev Disord. Mar 2022;52(3):1334-1345. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    31. Loh KP, Mohamed MR, Kadambi S, et al. Caregiver-oncologist prognostic concordance, caregiver mastery, and caregiver psychological health and quality of life. Oncologist. Apr 2021;26(4):310-317. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    32. Shin E, Kim M, Kim S, Sok S. Effects of reminiscence therapy on quality of life and life satisfaction of the elderly in the community: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr. Jul 10, 2023;23(1):420. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    33. Bogart K, Hemmesch A, Barnes E, et al. Healthcare access, satisfaction, and health-related quality of life among children and adults with rare diseases. Orphanet J Rare Dis. May 12, 2022;17(1):196. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    34. Sansó N, Galiana L, Oliver A, Tomás-Salvá M, Vidal-Blanco G. Predicting professional quality of life and life satisfaction in Spanish nurses: a cross-sectional study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. Jun 18, 2020;17(12):4366. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    35. Tokay Argan M, Mersin S. Life satisfaction, life quality, and leisure satisfaction in health professionals. Perspect Psychiatr Care. Apr 2021;57(2):660-666. [CrossRef] [Medline]

    ‎
    QoL: quality of life

    Edited by Sherif Badawy; submitted 24.10.24; peer-reviewed by Akemi Yamazaki, Tae Kawahara; final revised version received 12.02.25; accepted 14.04.25; published 16.06.25.

    Copyright

    © Wei He, Le-shan Zhou, Long-yi Hu. Originally published in JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting (https://pediatrics.jmir.org), 16.6.2025.

    This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://pediatrics.jmir.org, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.