This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Social Media for Parenting (41) Digital Mental Health Interventions, e-Mental Health and Cyberpsychology (1565) Parenting (270) Anxiety and Stress Disorders (1081) Loneliness and Social Isolation (105) Peer-to-Peer Support and Online Communities (652)

Published on in Vol 7 (2024)

Preprints (earlier versions) of this paper are available at https://preprints.jmir.org/preprint/59029, first published .
Parenting-Related Social Networking Site Use and Psychological Distress in Parents of Infants: Cross-sectional Study Exploring the Moderating Effects of Loneliness and Parenting Anxiety

Parenting-Related Social Networking Site Use and Psychological Distress in Parents of Infants: Cross-sectional Study Exploring the Moderating Effects of Loneliness and Parenting Anxiety

Parenting-Related Social Networking Site Use and Psychological Distress in Parents of Infants: Cross-sectional Study Exploring the Moderating Effects of Loneliness and Parenting Anxiety

Authors of this article:

Ryuta Onishi1 Author Orcid Image
Article Authors Cited by Tweetations Metrics

    Faculty of Nursing, Toyama Prefectural University, Toyama City, Toyama Prefecture, Japan

    Corresponding Author:

    Ryuta Onishi, PhD


    Background: In the digital age, social networking sites (SNSs) have revolutionized the approach to parenting. These platforms, widely used to access parenting information and support, affect parents both positively and negatively, with negative effects potentially increasing for those experiencing loneliness or anxiety.

    Objective: This study examined the relationship between SNS use and psychological distress among parents of young children, controlling for the moderating effects of loneliness and parenting anxiety. We hypothesized that higher SNS use correlates to greater psychological distress, particularly among parents with elevated levels of loneliness or parenting anxiety.

    Methods: A cross-sectional survey design using a closed web-based questionnaire was employed. Participants included 429 parents (205 mothers and 224 fathers) of children aged 0‐3 years recruited through a web-based survey company in Japan. The majority of the participants were couples, with some living with extended family members. The sample also encompassed individuals in cohabiting partnerships and single parents. The survey included measures of psychological distress, loneliness, parenting anxiety, frequency of SNS use for parenting, and covariates. Analytical models to explain psychological distress included interactions between loneliness or parenting anxiety and SNS use, individually for both fathers and mothers.

    Results: For mothers, a significant interaction effect was determined only between parenting anxiety and SNS use (b=0.247, SE 0.091; P=.008). Meanwhile, for fathers, significant interaction effects were observed for both loneliness (b=0.324, SE 0.127; P=.012) and parenting anxiety (b=0.144, SE 0.069; P=.038) with SNS use. A simple slope analysis for mothers indicated that SNS use was related to psychological distress only at higher levels of parenting anxiety (b=0.304, SE 0.090, β=.317; P<.001). Among fathers, SNS use was associated with psychological distress at higher levels of either parenting anxiety (b=0.330, SE 0.069, β=.346; P<.001) or loneliness (b=0.390, SE 0.098, β=.409; P<.001).

    Conclusions: The study concluded that the relationship between SNS use and psychological distress among parents of young children is moderated by loneliness and parenting anxiety. The findings highlight the need for tailored approaches to help parents manage SNS use, particularly focusing on those with higher levels of loneliness and parenting anxiety. It is imperative that health professionals provide nuanced guidance to parents on SNS use, considering individual psychological factors and potential gender differences in the impact of SNSs on mental well-being.

    JMIR Pediatr Parent 2024;7:e59029

    doi:10.2196/59029

    Keywords

    social networking sites; social media; psychological distress; loneliness; anxiety; social support; mother; father; infant; psychological; distress; children; web-based questionnaire; parent 


    In the wake of rapid digitalization, social networking sites (SNSs) such as Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), and Instagram have changed the landscape of parenting. Parenting-related SNS use is increasingly common, with parents employing these platforms to obtain parenting information and support [1,2]. This specific use of SNSs in parenting has both positive and negative implications. Parenting-related SNS use provides access to a wide range of information that may be unavailable offline [3,4] and offers solutions related to parenting, particularly by expanding maternal social networks [5,6]. However, parenting-related SNS use tends to disseminate idealized images of parenting, posing a risk of loss of confidence due to unrealistic expectations and pressures [7]. The idealized parenting images prevalent on SNSs may prompt parents to compare their parenting methods with others’, potentially triggering depressive symptoms and negative emotions [8,9]. Given the dual nature of parenting-related SNS use, it is critical to determine methods of use that minimize drawbacks while maximizing benefits.

    Among the negative impacts of social media use is psychological distress, which is generally characterized by emotional experience marked by symptoms of depression and anxiety [10]. It has been theoretically demonstrated that psychological distress can impair parenting practices [11], and understanding its mechanisms is crucial for supporting effective parenting functions. The impact of social media use on mental health varies widely [12], highlighting the need to focus on the differences in effects based on users’ backgrounds when exploring the relationship between psychological distress and social media.

    Psychological distress associated with SNS use may be driven by the loneliness experienced by parents. Loneliness can be defined as a “negative psychological state in which there is a discrepancy between one’s actual and desired social relationships” [13]. Parental loneliness raises the risk of child maltreatment and may be associated with potential maladjustment in children [14,15]. Lonely people tend to prefer social interactions on the web, reducing the time spent undertaking offline interactions [16]. Although they use social media to compensate for the lack of offline interpersonal relationships, they may not always realize satisfying web-based social relationships [17,18]. Consequently, parents with higher levels of loneliness may rely on limited social relationships through SNSs and experience greater psychological distress owing to unsatisfactory connections. Moreover, the correlation between mothers’ high levels of loneliness and the negative emotions experienced through social comparisons on SNSs [19] suggests that the degree of loneliness may influence psychological distress on SNSs.

    In addition to loneliness, parenting anxiety may influence parents’ psychological distress driven by SNS use. Parenting anxiety, characterized by confusion and fear regarding a child’s health, development, and parenting methods, could increase the risk of child maltreatment and child anxiety disorders [20,21]. Parents with high levels of parenting anxiety reportedly use social media more frequently and consider it useful in alleviating anxiety [22]. However, in general, people tend to share information focusing on the successful aspects of their lives on SNSs, facilitating upward comparisons with others who appear to have achieved their goals [23]. Numerous studies have reported that such upward comparisons on SNSs could have negative effects on mental health [24-26]. Given the prevalence of idealized images of parenting on SNSs [7], parents with high parenting anxiety may be increasingly vulnerable to psychological distress from upward comparisons. In addition, elevated parenting anxiety often correlates with lower parenting self-efficacy and self-esteem [27]. Lack of parenting self-efficacy may attenuate the comforting and anxiety-reducing effects of addressing concerns through smart devices [28].

    Systematic reviews of the relationship between SNSs, loneliness, and social anxiety indicate that individuals who are lonely or experience social anxiety are more likely to engage in problematic social media use [29], suggesting that such individuals may be increasingly vulnerable to psychological distress from SNSs. Despite the accumulation of knowledge on the relationship between social media, SNSs, loneliness, anxiety, and depression, research in the context of parenting remains limited [30]. Knowledge regarding SNS use among parents of young children is particularly limited, and studies concerning social media use in parenting have predominantly focused on mothers. Exploring the relationship between SNS use and psychological distress in parenting, taking into account levels of loneliness and parenting anxiety for both fathers and mothers, may provide nuanced evidence for SNS use in parenting and professional support.

    The usage of SNSs exhibits cultural differences [31], and Japan has its own unique cultural characteristics. In Japan, the widely known international platforms, such as X (formerly Twitter), Instagram, and Facebook, are used alongside LINE, which is popular in some parts of Asia [32]. Compared with other countries, Japanese users tend to employ SNSs more for browsing than for sharing information [33]. SNS use comprises 2 aspects: active and passive use [34], with a tendency for passive use to be more prevalent in Japan. Passive use of SNSs is often linked to negative impacts on mental health [35]. As Japanese users are predicted to be a group potentially at risk of psychological stress due to SNS use, it is significant to focus on this issue.

    This study elucidates the moderating effects of loneliness and parenting anxiety on the relationship between SNS use and psychological distress among mothers and fathers of young children. This study focuses on the individual experiences of fathers and mothers, as it is predicted that their parenting roles differ qualitatively owing to sociocultural and biological factors, despite sharing commonalities as parents. In Japan, there is a strong gender role division where fathers are seen as responsible for work outside the home, while mothers are responsible for household chores and child-rearing duties [36]. As of 2021, surveys on parenting time in Japan reveal a significant disparity in the time spent on child rearing, with wives contributing substantially more time than husbands [37].

    In addition, it is generally observed that women engage in the exchange of support on social media more frequently than men [38]. While it is widely recognized that mothers use social media to share information and support regarding child-rearing [5], social media platforms specifically targeting fathers are limited [39], indicating a gender disparity in web-based parenting resources. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct analyses that consider gender differences. Moreover, lonely individuals may lack a sense of fulfillment from social relationships on social media [17,18]. Upward comparisons, which are more likely to occur on these platforms, may particularly harm the mental health of individuals with parenting anxieties [24-26]. These risks can affect both fathers and mothers. Accordingly, we constructed a hypothetical conceptual model (Figure 1), and the following hypotheses were formulated:

    • Hypothesis 1: Mothers use SNSs for parenting more frequently than fathers.
    • Hypothesis 2: Only when mothers and fathers have high levels of parenting anxiety, frequent SNS use for parenting is associated with high psychological distress.
    • Hypothesis 3: Only when mothers and fathers have high levels of loneliness, frequent SNS use for parenting is associated with high psychological distress.
    ‎
    Figure 1. Hypothetical conceptual model. SNS: social networking site.

    Study Design

    This study used a cross-sectional design with a closed web-based questionnaire. To ensure the quality and transparency of research, the work employed the Survey Reporting Checklist (CROSS) developed by Sharma et al [40] and the CHERRIES (Checklist for Reporting Results of Internet E-Surveys) developed by Eysenbach [41]. This study reports a subset of data from the “Information Behavior on Social Networking Services Among Parents Raising Infants” survey.

    Operational Definitions

    In this study, SNSs were defined as communication platforms where participants can consume, produce, and interact with a stream of content generated by connections on the site [42]. Specific SNSs considered were X (formerly Twitter), Instagram, Facebook, and YouTube, taking into account the context of Japan. LINE, which is widely known in Japan, was excluded from this category owing to its limited use of the feed function characteristic of SNSs and its primary use as a tool for routine communication with acquaintances. The use of SNSs for parenting was operationally defined as usage to gather information related to parenting, monitoring other families, and building social relationships.

    Participants

    This study included 429 parents of 0- to 3-year-old children. The eligibility criteria required that the participants were actively parenting at least 1 child aged between 0 months and 3 years and 11 months at the time of the survey. There were no restrictions based on the health status of the parents or children or on family structure. The exclusion criterion was the absence of any experience using SNSs for parenting-related activities.

    Sampling was conducted using convenience sampling from the national panel managed by Cross Marketing, Inc, a web-based survey company in Japan, which manages more than 5 million active web users and provides academic web-based survey services to a wide range of demographic groups. The company’s active panel comprises a wide variety of web users, creating a large-scale monitor that is not biased by influx from specific sites or advertisements. The recruitment process began with a one-time survey invitation sent by the survey company to a randomly selected group of approximately 2000 individuals deemed eligible for this study. Those who received the invitation first answered a question regarding their child’s age; inconsistent responses were excluded. Subsequently, individuals who agreed to participate in the study were directed to the web-based questionnaire link via a click of an “agree” button after reading the research request document prepared by the authors. The study aimed to include 200 fathers and 200 mothers, and distribution continued randomly until this goal was reached, at which point the survey distribution was halted.

    Data Collection

    Data were collected in August 2023 using a web-based survey. The questionnaire was developed and administered by the authors using the Qualtrics web-based survey system [43]. Qualtrics ensures data management through encryption, redundancy, continuous monitoring, and single sign-on, and is FedRAMP-authorized as well as ISO27001-certified. The questionnaire was designed by the authors to be user-friendly and was pretested to avoid design issues. Participants who completed the questionnaire received a web-based reward based on Cross Marketing, Inc standards.

    Measures

    The survey included sections on SNS use, SNS use for parenting, psychosocial characteristics, and basic demographics. The questionnaire was developed through the following process. First, the content validity of the questionnaire was reviewed by a researcher (RO) with extensive experience in public health nursing practice and research, who also has experience in child-rearing support. Potential common errors in the questionnaire (eg, double-barreled questions, confusion, and leading questions) were checked by a representative from Cross Marketing Inc, who has extensive experience in designing web-based surveys, and appropriate revisions were made. In addition, face validity for all survey items was ensured through pretesting with 4 university students and 5 mothers with infants and older children. Owing to the limitations of the pretest sample size, the factor structure and internal consistency were confirmed in the main survey. Details of the survey items are shown in Multimedia Appendix 1.

    SNS Use

    Data were collected with regard to the possession of digital devices (smartphones, tablets), currently used SNSs (X, Instagram, Facebook, YouTube, LinkedIn, etc), and overall frequency of SNS usage by participants. The frequency of SNS usage, based on previous research [34], considered both active and passive usage aspects. Active usage was mainly related to information production (eg, posting updates on SNSs, sending private messages), while passive usage concerned information consumption (eg, scrolling through news feeds and viewing other users’ profiles). The frequency of active and passive SNS usage over the past week was assessed, with response options ranging from 1 (not at all) to 8 (more than 10 times a day).

    SNS Use for Parenting

    Considering the lack of a specific scale to measure SNS use for parenting, original measurement items were created. Based on previous studies [44] and interview data from mothers in the parenting phase, 3 categories were formulated for SNS use in parenting: “information gathering,” “monitoring,” and “connecting.” Each category consisted of 2 items, with “information gathering” including items related to gathering information on parenting and children. “Monitoring” included tracking other families’ parenting and their children’s conditions, while “connection” included making friends in parenting and communicating with peers in parenting. Items were measured on a 5-point scale (1=never use to 5=always use), with the mean value calculated within a range of 1‐5, and higher scores indicating greater subjective frequency of use.

    An exploratory factor analysis using maximum likelihood promax rotation was conducted to determine the handling of the scale for SNS use in parenting. The applicability of factor analysis was confirmed by ensuring that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was greater than 0.8, and Barlett’s test of sphericity was significant. The number of factors was determined by examining the scree plot and using eigenvalues greater than 1. A factor loading of 4.0 or higher was employed as the criterion for item selection. Reliability was assessed by calculating Cronbach α.

    Table 1 shows the results of the exploratory factor analysis. Bartlett’s sphericity test for the 6 items measuring SNS use in parenting was significant (χ²15=2319.43; P<.001), and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin values were above 0.8, confirming the suitability of the data for exploratory factor analysis. Exploratory factor analysis with maximum likelihood promax rotation revealed a 1-factor structure for the 6 items (Table 1). An attempt was made to confirm a 3-factor structure considering the 3 categories, but eigenvalues for the factors after the first were lower than 1, indicating that the model was not suitable. Therefore, the study measured SNS use for parenting by employing the total score of all items, with a Cronbach α value of 0.92.

    Table 1. Exploratory factor analysis (N=429).
    StatementsFactor loadingCommunality
    Parenting insights browsing0.930.86
    Observing childhood moments0.910.82
    Gathering parenting-related information0.800.65
    Gathering child-related information0.780.61
    Building a parenting community0.720.52
    Communication among parenting peers0.720.52

    Psychosocial Factor

    Psychological Distress

    The Japanese version of the K10 scale developed by Kessler et al [45,46], a globally recognized gold standard screening tool for mood and anxiety disorders in the general population, was used to measure the level of psychological distress but not in screening for mental disorders; therefore, no cutoff value was applied. Higher scores indicated greater levels of psychological distress. Sample items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1=not at all to 5=all the time), and the mean was calculated within a range of 1‐5. Cronbach α value for this study was 0.95.

    Parenting Anxiety

    A subscale of the Parenting Emotions Scale developed in Japan [47] was employed to measure parenting anxiety. The parenting anxiety subscale, one of the negative emotion subscales, includes aspects of anxiety about the child’s development and parenting methods, with established reliability and validity [47]. For example, items such as “Feeling unsure about how to parent” were rated on a 4-point Likert scale (1=not at all to 4=often), with the mean value calculated within a range of 1‐4, and higher scores indicating greater parenting anxiety. Cronbach α value for this study was 0.86.

    Loneliness

    The Japanese version of the 10-item short form of the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3) [48,49], validated among mothers of infants, was employed. Items were rated on a 4-point Likert scale (1=not at all to 4=always), with the mean value calculated within a range of 1‐4, and higher scores indicating greater feelings of loneliness. Cronbach α value for this study was 0.79.

    Social Support

    A subscale related to support from significant others from the Japanese version of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support [50-53] was also used. It includes 4 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1=very strongly disagree to 7=very strongly agree), with higher scores indicating higher perceived social support. Example items include “I have someone with whom I can share joys and sorrows.” The average score for each subscale was calculated on a scale of 1‐7. The reliability and validity of this scale have been previously established [50]. Cronbach α value for this study was 0.91.

    Participant Characteristics

    Data were collected on participants’ age, number of children, age of youngest child, cohabiting family members, occupation, level of education, subjective economic status, and division of childcare and housework.

    Statistics

    Initially, descriptive statistics were first applied for all variables in the study, stratified by fathers and mothers. To identify differences between variables for fathers and mothers, t tests or chi-square tests were performed. Thereafter, separate multiple regression models were constructed for mothers and fathers, with psychological distress as the outcome variable and SNS use for parenting, parenting anxiety, and loneliness as predictor variables. Interaction terms between SNS use for parenting and parenting anxiety and loneliness were included in the model to examine their interactions. Covariates included parental age, which influences affinity for digital devices; number of children and age of youngest child, which influence childcare realities; subjective economic status, which was found to be related in univariate analyses; and active or passive use, reflecting the impact of SNS use in contexts other than parenting. Comprehensive checks were undertaken to ensure that the necessary assumptions for the use of multiple regression analysis were met. First, the skewness and kurtosis of the dependent variable were evaluated to ensure that the analysis was not affected by nonnormality. Second, the linear relationship between the dependent and independent variables was visually assessed using scatter plots. Third, the Durbin-Watson ratio was confirmed to be around 2 to ensure the independence of the observations. Fourth, normality and homoscedasticity of errors were visually assessed using normal Q-Q plots of residuals and studentized residuals. Fifth, multicollinearity was assessed by ensuring that the variance inflation factor for independent variables was lower than 10. Moreover, for significant interaction terms, a simple slope analysis [54] was conducted by plotting psychological distress scores at low (−1 SD) and high (+1 SD) levels of loneliness or parenting anxiety at low and high levels of SNS use for parenting.

    Statistical analyses were performed using JMP Pro 16.0 (SAS Institute) with a significance level of 5%. Sample size was calculated using G-power, assuming an effect size (f2) of 0.15 (medium), α error probability of .05, power of 0.8, and a number of predictors of 24, confirming that a sample size of 124 or more was required. In addition, in the analysis, when missing values for psychological distress, loneliness, parenting anxiety, and perceived social support were less than half of the items, missing values were imputed by predicting values based on the least squares method using the nonmissing parts of each scale. If more than half the items were missing, they were treated as missing data. Participants with missing values in nonpsychological scale items were also treated as having missing data. While participants with missing values were included in the analysis because of research ethics, they were excluded from the creation of multiple regression models. During this process, the usage of parenting-related SNSs and other psychological scale scores was compared between participants with missing data and those with no missing data, ensuring that there were no significant differences.

    Ethical Considerations

    Informed consent and opt-out procedures were implemented as follows. First, individuals referred by the web survey company were provided with written information detailing the study's purpose, the voluntary nature of participation, the absence of any penalties for nonparticipation, the right to refuse to answer, the maintenance of anonymity, the use of data solely for research purposes, and the strict management of personal information. Second, participants were given the choice to either agree or decline participation in the survey; only those who clicked the consent button were considered to have consented to participate, thereby ensuring the opportunity to opt out. In addition, all survey questions included an option to decline to answer. Respondents’ personal information was not disclosed to the researchers, and the data remained fully anonymized, ensuring that researchers had no means of identifying individuals. Participants received digital reward points as compensation for their effort in completing the survey, in accordance with the web survey company’s guidelines. This study was conducted with the approval of the ethics committee for research involving human subjects at Toyama Prefectural University (approval number: R5-16, dated August 10, 2023).


    Descriptive Statistics

    Among those who returned the survey, responses from 429 individuals with experience using SNSs for parenting and no missing data on SNS use were analyzed. Table 2 illustrates the descriptive statistics and differences between mothers (205 individuals; 205/429, 47.8%) and fathers (224 individuals; 224/429, 52.2%). The differences were related to parental age, age of the youngest child, employment status, educational level, and division of childcare and housework. No differences in psychosocial factors were determined between fathers and mothers.

    Table 2. Descriptive statistics and gender differences (N=429).
    Mothers (n=205)Fathers (n=224)t test (df)Chi-square (df)P value
    n (%)Mean (SD)n (%)Mean (SD)
    Demographics
    Parent’s age (years)a—b34.5 (4.83)—39.8 (6.76)8.85 (394)—<.001
    Number of children1.72 (427)—.09
    194 (46)—91 (41)—
    287 (42)—92 (41)—
    ≥324 (12)—41 (18)—
    Youngest child’s age2.31 (427)—.02
    Infant71 (35)—53 (24)—
    1 year61 (30)—72 (32)—
    2 years44 (21)—59 (26)—
    3 years29 (14)—40 (18)—
    Cohabiting family members
    Partner196 (96)—220 (98)——2.47 (2).12
    Own family members12 (6)—13 (6)——0.48 (2).79
    Partner’s family members9 (4)—4 (2)——2.47 (2).12
    Occupational status—227.06 (3)<.001
    Full-time worker59 (29)—220 (98)—
    Part-time worker23 (11)—1 (0)—
    Homemaker76 (37)—1 (0)—
    On maternity or childcare leave47 (23)—2 (1)—
    Educational level (highest educational qualifications)c—33.91 (3)<.001
    Junior high school/high school graduate24 (12)—28 (13)—
    Junior college/vocational school graduate63 (31)—23 (10)—
    University/graduate school graduate117 (57)—172 (77)—
    Subjective economic status–0.95 (427)—.34
    Very concerned23 (11)—35 (15)—
    Somewhat concerned90 (43)—89 (39)—
    Slightly concerned82 (39)—97 (42)—
    Not concerned at all14 (7)—9 (4)—
    Division of household and childcare responsibilities—74.8 (18.46)—34.4 (17.86)–23.06 (427)—<.001
    Psychosocial factor
    Psychological distressd—2.12 (0.96)—2.09 (1.03)–0.30 (423)—.77
    Lonelinesse—2.31 (0.49)—2.35 (0.51)0.80 (424)—.43
    Parenting anxietyf—2.44 (0.70)—2.37 (0.71)–1.09 (424)—.28
    Perceived social supportg—4.98 (1.48)—4.90 (1.29)–0.62 (426)—.53

    aMissing values: n=35 (mother: n=13; father: n=22).

    bNot applicable.

    cMissing values: n=2 (mother: n=1; father: n=1).

    dMissing values: n=4 (mother: n=2; father: n=2).

    eMissing values: n=5 (mother: n=1; father: n=2).

    fMissing values: n=3 (mother: n=1; father: n=2).

    gMissing value: n=1 (mother: n=1).

    Gender Differences in SNS Use

    Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics and differences in SNS use between fathers and mothers. As regards digital device ownership, a significantly greater proportion of fathers owned a computer than mothers (χ²1=25.12; P<.001). In terms of SNS usage, a significantly higher percentage of mothers used Instagram than fathers (χ²1=41.87; P<.001). The frequency of SNS use showed that mothers were significantly more passive than fathers (t427=−2.45; P=.006).

    Table 3. Gender differences in social networking sites use (N=429).
    Mothers (n=205)Fathers (n=224)t test (df)Chi-square (df)P value
    n (%)Mean (SD)n (%)Mean (SD)
    Having digital devicesa
    Having smartphones203 (99)—b218 (97)——1.70 (2).19
    Having tablets45 (22)—72 (32)——5.61 (2).02
    Having computers86 (42)—148 (66)——25.12 (2)<.001
    SNSc usea
    X (Twitter)96 (47)—106 (47)——0.01 (2).92
    Instagram147 (72)—91 (41)——41.87 (2)<.001
    Facebook65 (32)—79 (35)——0.61 (2).44
    Youtube130 (63)—153 (68)——1.14 (2).29
    TikTok30 (15)—29 (13)——0.26 (2).61
    Nonuse26 (13)—35 (16)——0.76 (2).38
    Frequency of SNS use
    Active use—3.37 (2.5)—3.24 (2.49)–0.53 (427)—.59
    Passive use—5.47 (2.4)—4.82 (2.45)–2.78 (427)—.006
    SNSs for parenting
    Gathering parenting-related information—2.89 (1.25)—2.33 (1.25)–4.62 (427)—<.001
    Gathering child-related information—2.79 (1.21)—2.29 (1.23)–4.24 (427)—<.001
    Parenting insights browsing—2.49 (1.27)—2.18 (1.23)–2.61 (427)—.01
    Observing into childhood moments—2.56 (1.25)—2.16 (1.24)–3.33 (427)—.001
    Building a parenting community—2.02 (1.33)—1.96 (1.22)–0.49 (427)—.63
    Communication among parenting peers—2.02 (1.33)—1.96 (1.22)–0.27 (427)—.79
    Total scale—2.46 (1.02)—2.15 (1.08)–03.04 (427)—.003

    aMultiple selection.

    bNot applicable

    cSNS: social networking site.

    Regarding the frequency of SNS use for parenting, mothers were significantly more likely than fathers to gather parenting (t427=−4.62; P<.001) and child-related information (t427=−4.24; P<.001), browse parenting insights (t427=−2.61; P=.01), and observe childhood moments (t427=−3.33; P=.001). The mean scores for the frequency of SNS use for parenting, divided by the number of items, were 2.15 (SD 1.08) for fathers and 2.46 (SD 1.02) for mothers. An independent t test indicated that mothers had significantly higher scores than fathers (t427=−3.04; P=.003).

    The Effect of SNS Use for Parenting on Psychological Distress

    Multiple regression models were created for both mothers and fathers to explain psychological distress with SNS use for parenting, loneliness, parenting anxiety, and covariates (Table 4). The model was constructed for mothers (F12, 177=11.78; P<.001; R²=0.44) and fathers (F12, 189=15.43; P<.001; R²=49.5). In the mothers model, a significant interaction effect was found only between parenting anxiety and SNS use for parenting (b=0.247, SE 0.091; P=.008). Meanwhile, in the fathers model, significant interaction effects were found between loneliness (b=0.324, SE 0.127; P=.01) and parenting anxiety (b=0.144, SE 0.069; P=.04) following SNS use for parenting.

    Table 4. The effect of social networking sites use for parenting on psychological distress (N=392).
    Mothers (n=190)aFathers (n=202)b
    bcSE95% CLdβeP valuebSE95% CLβP value
    LLfULgLLUL
    Main effect
     Loneliness0.490.140.210.770.25.0010.400.160.070.720.20.02
     Parenting anxiety0.510.090.330.680.37<.0010.420.100.230.600.29<.001
     SNSh use for parenting0.130.060.000.260.14.040.230.070.090.360.24.001
    Moderation effect
     SNS use for parenting × loneliness−0.170.12−0.410.08−0.09.180.320.130.070.580.16.01
     SNS use for parenting × parenting anxiety0.250.090.070.430.19.0080.140.070.010.280.13.04
    Covariates
     Parent’s age−0.010.01−0.030.02−0.04.540.000.01−0.020.01−0.02.70
     Number of children−0.010.09−0.180.16−0.01.890.070.08−0.080.230.05.33
     Youngest child’s age−0.040.06−0.150.08−0.04.530.030.05−0.070.140.03.53
     Subjective economic status−0.160.07−0.30−0.01−0.13.03−0.300.08−0.45−0.16−0.23<.001
     Frequency of passive use of SNS0.060.030.000.110.14.030.000.03−0.050.060.01.90
     Frequency of active use of SNS−0.020.02−0.070.03−0.05.420.000.03−0.060.050.00.96
     Perceived social support−0.050.05−0.140.04−0.08.28−0.150.06−0.27−0.04−0.19.009
    Intercept2.970.462.053.880.00<.0013.440.442.594.300.00<.001

    aModel fit: F=111.78; model P value <.001; R2=0.44; adjusted R2=0.41.

    bModel fit: F=15.43; model P value <.001; R2=0.49; adjusted R2=0.46.

    cb: estimate.

    dCL: confidence limit.

    eβ: standardized estimate.

    fLL: lower limit.

    gUL: upper limit.

    hSNS: social networking site.

    Moderation Effects of Loneliness and Parenting Anxiety

    The results of the simple slope analysis are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3. The mothers model showed that, at higher levels of parenting anxiety, SNS use for parenting was related to psychological distress (b=0.304, SE 0.090, β=.317; P<.001) but not at lower levels (b=−0.044, SE 0.090, β=−.046; P=.63). In the fathers model, SNS use for parenting was related to psychological distress at higher levels of parenting anxiety (b=0.330, SE 0.069, β=.346; P<.001) but not at lower levels (b=0.127, SE 0.097, β=.133; P=.19). In addition, SNS use for parenting was associated with psychological distress in fathers at higher levels of loneliness (b=0.390, SE 0.098, β=.409; P<.001) but not at lower levels (b=0.067, SE 0.089, β=.070; P=.45).

    ‎
    Figure 2. Simple slope analysis: interaction of parenting anxiety and use of SNSs in parenting predicting psychological distress. SNS: social networking site.
    ‎
    Figure 3. Simple slope analysis: interaction of loneliness and use of SNSs in parenting predicting psychological distress. SNS: social networking site.

    Major Findings

    This study examined the moderating influence of loneliness and parenting anxiety on the relationship between SNS use for parenting and psychological distress among mothers and fathers of young children. We observed that mothers used parenting-related SNSs more frequently than fathers, primarily for gathering parenting information and monitoring others’ parenting activities. In addition, parenting anxiety moderated the relationship between SNS use for parenting and psychological distress in both genders, whereas the effect of loneliness was discernible only in fathers. Therefore, hypotheses 1 and 2 were fully supported and hypothesis 3 was partially supported. This novelty in our findings suggests the presence of both common and divergent elements in dynamics through which SNS use in parenting precipitates psychological distress in fathers and mothers. Previous research on SNS use and mental health has shown that the quality of interactions on SNSs (positive or negative) [55] and the attitude toward their use (passive or active) [56] can result in either positive or negative impacts on mental health. A systematic review of the relationship between SNS use, loneliness, and social anxiety [29] found that high levels of loneliness and social anxiety are correlated with problematic SNS use. However, it also highlighted the need for studies that simultaneously address these factors to explore their complex interrelationships. Most studies focusing on SNS use, loneliness, and anxiety have concentrated on adolescents, where SNS research is prevalent, leaving limited insights into both fathers and mothers in the context of early childhood parenting. This study extends previous findings by specifically examining SNS use in parenting and simultaneously addressing loneliness and anxiety to explore their moderating effects.

    First, the moderating role of parenting anxiety was substantiated for both fathers and mothers regarding the association between SNS use in parenting and psychological distress. This suggests that parents struggling with heightened parenting anxiety may inadvertently exacerbate their psychological distress when using SNSs to cope with parenting challenges. An earlier study demonstrated that using information from smart devices to alleviate parenting concerns can paradoxically amplify anxiety when those concerns are severe [44]. Our findings align with previous research, hinting at the limited benefit for highly anxious parents in seeking comfort through SNSs. The background of psychological distress experienced by fathers and mothers with high parenting anxiety owing to SNS use may be related to low parenting self-efficacy and self-esteem, which are correlated with anxiety [27]. It is conceivable that parents burdened with acute parenting anxiety lack buffers such as self-efficacy and self-esteem against negative web-based influences, making them more vulnerable to psychological distress. In addition, parents prone to parenting anxiety inherently possess neurotic traits, which may foster upward social comparisons on SNSs and lead to increased psychological distress [57].

    Second, the moderating effect of loneliness was observed solely among fathers, indicating that only those with significant levels of loneliness showed a strong correlation between intensive SNS use for parenting and high psychological distress. In general, higher levels of loneliness correlate with lower socioeconomic status [58]. In Japan, a persistent belief in gender roles assigns work responsibilities to men and domestic and child-rearing responsibilities to women [36]. Fathers of young children may identify strongly with the role of breadwinner and feel a deep sense of duty and pride. For fathers who feel isolated owing to socioeconomic constraints, SNS platforms that facilitate peer comparison [23] may exacerbate feelings of inadequacy regarding their family parenting practices, thus fostering psychological distress. Similarly, fathers who experience loneliness following strained partner relationships may face psychological distress from upward comparisons to seemingly idyllic families on SNSs. Furthermore, the lack of SNS platforms that naturally facilitate information sharing and camaraderie among fathers in the parenting domain may have also contributed to the distress experienced by lonely fathers. While social media and platforms for pregnant women and mothers are prevalent, there is a dearth of resources for fathers, including face-to-face peer support [39]. On more open platforms such as Instagram, X, and Facebook, fathers may find opportunities to connect with their peers, but in environments in Japan with strong gender-role divisions [36], they are likely to encounter more mother-centered information exchange. The use of SNSs in the context of fathers seeking connections and information sharing in parenting may have exacerbated psychological distress by creating a sense of alienation among them.

    It is worth noting that no moderating effect of loneliness among mothers could be determined. This suggests that, regardless of loneliness, increasing SNS use for parenting among mothers is indicative of psychological distress. Previous studies have suggested that women experience significantly higher levels of depression owing to social comparisons on social media than men [59]. Mothers, as opposed to fathers, may be more susceptible to the mental health detriments of SNS use, regardless of whether or not they experience loneliness. In addition, the literature presents conflicting views on whether SNSs contribute positively by fostering desired social relationships [60,61] or negatively by forming unsatisfactory social connections for lonely individuals [18]. Previous research demonstrated that, for mothers in the parenting phase, the extent of their social networks on SNSs is inversely related to feelings of loneliness [62], suggesting that SNSs may not necessarily accentuate negative effects for lonely mothers.

    Furthermore, given that this study is cross-sectional, there is the possibility of a reverse causal relationship, where parents with high levels of loneliness and parenting anxiety may engage more actively in SNS use for parenting because of their high psychological distress. Previous research reported that individuals with neurotic tendencies, which precede psychological distress, tend to use social media excessively or compulsively [63]. It is possible that parents experiencing high psychological distress, along with loneliness and parenting anxiety, may inherently possess neurotic tendencies and, consequently, may frequently use SNSs for parenting.

    Implications

    This study highlights the differences in the moderating effects of loneliness and parenting anxiety on the relationship between SNS use and psychological distress among parents. It was observed that both fathers and mothers experiencing heightened levels of loneliness or parenting anxiety reported that SNS use in parenting activities was associated with increased psychological distress. This observation suggests that SNS use may not always be beneficial for parents experiencing loneliness or parenting anxiety, and it might be useful for professionals to discuss the potential drawbacks of relying heavily on SNSs for parenting support. Conversely, it is also suggested that parents experiencing high psychological distress, along with loneliness and parenting anxiety, may use SNSs frequently for parenting. As SNSs might serve as necessary support for parents in distress, it is crucial for professionals to support its moderate use while considering the limitations of its benefits. Given that SNS use for parenting is more common among mothers, it is important for professionals to recognize mothers as a group potentially more susceptible to both the positive and negative impacts of SNS use. Finally, enhancing SNS platforms specifically for lonely fathers as a parenting resource may be beneficial.

    Limitations

    This study has several limitations. First, owing to its cross-sectional design, causality cannot be established. Second, the study relies on self-reported questionnaires, which does not eliminate the possibility of information bias. Third, the use of convenience sampling by a specific survey company in Japan may have introduced selection bias. Specifically, the sample may have been biased toward those with a high affinity for web-based information and high information literacy, thus limiting the generalizability of the results. Fourth, the study did not use a validated scale to measure SNS use for parenting, and although it considered real-life parenting situations through interview data, it lacks clear conceptualization and validation of construct validity, limiting the accuracy of the phenomenon measured. Fifth, the study did not consider the information literacy of the participants. Future research should use scales that more accurately measure the concept of SNS use in parenting. In addition, because a bidirectional causal relationship between SNS use and mental health is assumed, longitudinal studies that test for causality could provide higher-resolution insights into SNS use and parenting mental health.

    Conclusions

    This study examined the moderating effects of loneliness and parenting anxiety on the relationship between SNS use and psychological distress among parents of young children. The moderating effect of parenting anxiety on this relationship was confirmed for both fathers and mothers, but the moderating effect of loneliness was established only for fathers. Given that different mechanisms underlie the loneliness experienced by fathers and mothers, the impact of SNS use on mental health may differ. Health and medical professionals might well need to tailor guidelines for SNS use in parental support taking into account gender. For fathers, a cautious approach to SNS use when feeling lonely is recommended, while for mothers, guidance on how to effectively balance SNS use with other support resources based on the level of parenting concerns may be needed.

    Acknowledgments

    This work was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science KAKENHI (grant 19K19728, Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists) and Toyama Prefectural University Faculty of Nursing Discretionary Expenses for the Fiscal Year 2023.

    Conflicts of Interest

    None declared.

    Multimedia Appendix 1

    Questionnaire.

    DOCX File, 50 KB
    1. Harpel T. Pregnant women sharing pregnancy-related information on Facebook: web-based survey study. J Med Internet Res. Mar 22, 2018;20(3):e115. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    2. McDaniel BT, Coyne SM, Holmes EK. New mothers and media use: associations between blogging, social networking, and maternal well-being. Matern Child Health J. Oct 2012;16(7):1509-1517. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    3. Lupton D. The use and value of digital media for information about pregnancy and early motherhood: a focus group study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. Jul 19, 2016;16(1):171. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    4. Moon RY, Mathews A, Oden R, Carlin R. Mothers’ perceptions of the internet and social media as sources of parenting and health information: qualitative study. J Med Internet Res. Jul 9, 2019;21(7):e14289. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    5. Gleeson DM, Craswell A, Jones CM. Women’s use of social networking sites related to childbearing: an integrative review. Women Birth. Aug 2019;32(4):294-302. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    6. Bartholomew MK, Schoppe-Sullivan SJ, Glassman M, Kamp Dush CM, Sullivan JM. New parents’ Facebook use at the transition to parenthood. Fam Relat. Jul 2012;61(3):455-469. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    7. Ouvrein G. Mommy influencers: helpful or harmful? The relationship between exposure to mommy influencers and perceived parental self-efficacy among mothers and primigravida. New Media Soc. Apr 2022;26(4):2295-2314. [CrossRef]
    8. de los Santos TM, Amaro LM, Joseph NT. Social comparison and emotion across social networking sites for mothers. Commun Rep. May 4, 2019;32(2):82-97. [CrossRef]
    9. Coyne SM, McDaniel BT, Stockdale LA. “Do you dare to compare?” Associations between maternal social comparisons on social networking sites and parenting, mental health, and romantic relationship outcomes. Comput Human Behav. May 2017;70:335-340. [CrossRef]
    10. American Psychological Association. Psychological distress. APA Dictionary of Psychology. Apr 19, 2018. URL: https://dictionary.apa.org/psychological-distress
    11. Taraban L, Shaw DS. Parenting in context: revisiting Belsky’s classic process of parenting model in early childhood. Dev Rev. Jun 2018;48:55-81. [CrossRef]
    12. Ostic D, Qalati SA, Barbosa B, et al. Effects of social media use on psychological well-being: a mediated model. Front Psychol. Jun 2021;12:678766. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    13. Peplau LA, Perlman D. Perspectives on loneliness. In: Peplau LA, Perlman D, editors. Loneliness: A Sourcebook of Current Theory, Research and Therapy. Wiley; 1982:1-20.
    14. Milner JS, Crouch JL, McCarthy RJ, et al. Child physical abuse risk factors: a systematic review and a meta-analysis. Aggress Violent Behav. Sep 2022;66:101778. [CrossRef]
    15. Luoma I, Korhonen M, Puura K, Salmelin RK. Maternal loneliness: concurrent and longitudinal associations with depressive symptoms and child adjustment. Psychol Health Med. Jul 2019;24(6):667-679. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    16. Nowland R, Necka EA, Cacioppo JT. Loneliness and social internet use: pathways to reconnection in a digital world? Perspect Psychol Sci. Jan 2018;13(1):70-87. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    17. Clayton RB, Osborne RE, Miller BK, Oberle CD. Loneliness, anxiousness, and substance use as predictors of Facebook use. Comput Human Behav. May 2013;29(3):687-693. [CrossRef]
    18. Lo J. Exploring the buffer effect of receiving social support on lonely and emotionally unstable social networking users. Comput Human Behav. Jan 2019;90:103-116. [CrossRef]
    19. Onishi R, Tone H, Maruyama F, Kubota M, Chino N. Identifying and comparing types of social comparisons on social networking sites among mothers with infants: differences in maternal loneliness by types. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. May 10, 2024. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    20. Whipple EE, Webster-Stratton C. The role of parental stress in physically abusive families. Child Abuse Negl. 1991;15(3):279-291. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    21. Drake KL, Ginsburg GS. Family factors in the development, treatment, and prevention of childhood anxiety disorders. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. Jun 2012;15(2):144-162. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    22. Drouin M, McDaniel BT, Pater J, Toscos T. How parents and their children used social media and technology at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic and associations with anxiety. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. Nov 2020;23(11):727-736. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    23. Kross E, Verduyn P, Demiralp E, et al. Facebook use predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PLoS One. Aug 2013;8(8):e69841. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    24. Niu GF, Luo YJ, Sun XJ, et al. Qzone use and depression among Chinese adolescents: a moderated mediation model. J Affect Disord. Apr 15, 2018;231:58-62. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    25. Verduyn P, Lee DS, Park J, et al. Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: experimental and longitudinal evidence. J Exp Psychol Gen. Apr 2015;144(2):480-488. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    26. Yang CC, Holden SM, Carter MDK. Social media social comparison of ability (but not opinion) predicts lower identity clarity: identity processing style as a mediator. J Youth Adolesc. Oct 2018;47(10):2114-2128. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    27. Don BP, Chong A, Biehle SN, Gordon A, Mickelson KD. Anxiety across the transition to parenthood: change trajectories among low-risk parents. Anxiety Stress Coping. 2014;27(6):633-649. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    28. Onishi R, Tone H, Kubota M, Chino N, Maruyama F. Associating parental efficacy with the utility of smart devices: a cross-sectional study of their role in alleviating maternal parenting concerns among infants aged 6-11 months. Children (Basel). Aug 23, 2023;10(9):1437. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    29. O’Day EB, Heimberg RG. Social media use, social anxiety, and loneliness: a systematic review. Comput Hum Behav Rep. Jan 2021;3:100070. [CrossRef]
    30. Radesky JS, Schumacher J, Zuckerman B. Mobile and interactive media use by young children: the good, the bad, and the unknown. Pediatrics. Jan 2015;135(1):1-3. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    31. Bonsaksen T, Thygesen H, Leung J, Lamph G, Kabelenga I, Østertun Geirdal A. Patterns of social media use across age groups during the COVID-19 pandemic: a study across four countries. Soc Sci. Mar 2024;13(4):194. [CrossRef]
    32. Sakurai R, Nemoto Y, Mastunaga H, Fujiwara Y. Who is mentally healthy? Mental health profiles of Japanese social networking service users with a focus on LINE, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. PLoS One. Mar 3, 2021;16(3):e0246090. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    33. The white paper on information and communications in Japan. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. 2018. URL: https://www.soumu.go.jp/johotsusintokei/whitepaper/eng/WP2018/chapter-4.pdf#page=1 [Accessed 2024-10-02]
    34. Verduyn P, Gugushvili N, Kross E. The impact of social network sites on mental health: distinguishing active from passive use. World Psychiatry. Feb 2021;20(1):133-134. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    35. Godard R, Holtzman S. Are active and passive social media use related to mental health, wellbeing, and social support outcomes? A meta-analysis of 141 studies. J Comput Mediat Commun. Nov 8, 2024;29(1):zmad055. [CrossRef]
    36. Piotrowski M, Yoshida A, Johnson L, Wolford R. Gender role attitudes: an examination of cohort effects in Japan. J Marriage Family. Aug 2019;81(4):863-884. [CrossRef]
    37. The white paper on gender equality 2023, section 1 change in attitudes toward work, current status and challenges of housework, childcare, etc and work styles. Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office. 2023. URL: https://www.gender.go.jp/about_danjo/whitepaper/r05/gaiyou/pdf/r05_gaiyou_en.pdf [Accessed 2024-10-02]
    38. Tifferet S. Gender differences in social support on social network sites: a meta-analysis. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. Apr 1, 2020;23(4):199-209. [CrossRef]
    39. Darwin Z, Galdas P, Hinchliff S, et al. Fathers’ views and experiences of their own mental health during pregnancy and the first postnatal year: a qualitative interview study of men participating in the UK Born and Bred in Yorkshire (BaBY) cohort. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. Jan 26, 2017;17(1):45. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    40. Sharma A, Minh Duc NT, Luu Lam Thang T, et al. A Consensus-Based Checklist for Reporting of Survey Studies (CROSS). J Gen Intern Med. Oct 2021;36(10):3179-3187. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    41. Eysenbach G. Improving the quality of web surveys: the Checklist for Reporting Results of Internet E-Surveys (CHERRIES). J Med Internet Res. Sep 29, 2004;6(3):e34. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    42. Ellison NB, Boyd D. Sociality through social network sites. In: Dutton W, editor. The Oxford Handbook of Internet Studies. Oxford University Press; 2013.
    43. Qualtrics. 2024. URL: https://www.qualtrics.com [Accessed 2024-10-02]
    44. Onishi R, Hirano M, Saeki K. Internet and application use in child-rearing among the digital native generation: a study on mothers raising 3-year-olds. Hokkaido J Public Health. 2021;34:59-68.
    45. Kessler RC, Andrews G, Colpe LJ, et al. Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychol Med. Aug 2002;32(6):959-976. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    46. Furukawa TA, Kawakami N, Saitoh M, et al. The performance of the Japanese version of the K6 and K10 in the world mental health survey Japan. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2008;17(3):152-158. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    47. Aramaki M, Muto T. Factors related to negative and positive feelings about child-rearing: a survey of mothers of young children. Jpn J Dev Psychol. 2008;19(2):87-97. [CrossRef]
    48. Russell DW. UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): reliability, validity, and factor structure. J Pers Assess. Feb 1996;66(1):20-40. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    49. Arimoto A, Tadaka E. Reliability and validity of Japanese versions of the UCLA Loneliness Scale Version 3 for use among mothers with infants and toddlers: a cross-sectional study. BMC Womens Health. Jul 26, 2019;19(1):105. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    50. Iwasa H, Gondou Y, Masui Y, et al. Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the multidimensional scale of perceived social support scale: examination of middle-aged and older adults. Kousei no Shihyo. 2007;54(6):26-33.
    51. Dahlem NW, Zimet GD, Walker RR. The multidimensional scale of perceived social support: a confirmation study. J Clin Psychol. 1991;47(6):756-761. [CrossRef]
    52. Zimet GD, Dahlem NW, Zimet SG, Farley GK. The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. J Pers Assess. Mar 1988;52(1):30-41. [CrossRef]
    53. Zimet GD, Powell SS, Farley GK, Werkman S, Berkoff KA. Psychometric characteristics of the multidimensional scale of perceived social support. J Pers Assess. 1990;55(3-4):610-617. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    54. Liu Y, West SG, Levy R, Aiken LS. Tests of simple slopes in multiple regression models with an interaction: comparison of four approaches. Multivariate Behav Res. Jul 4, 2017;52(4):445-464. [CrossRef]
    55. Seabrook EM, Kern ML, Rickard NS. Social networking sites, depression, and anxiety: a systematic review. JMIR Ment Health. Nov 23, 2016;3(4):e50. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    56. Verduyn P, Ybarra O, Résibois M, Jonides J, Kross E. Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective well‐being? A critical review. Soc Issues Policy Rev. Jan 2017;11(1):274-302. [CrossRef]
    57. Rozgonjuk D, Ryan T, Kuljus JK, Täht K, Scott GG. Social comparison orientation mediates the relationship between neuroticism and passive Facebook use. Cyberpsychology. 2019;13(1):Article 2. [CrossRef]
    58. Solmi M, Veronese N, Galvano D, et al. Factors associated with loneliness: an umbrella review of observational studies. J Affect Disord. Jun 15, 2020;271:131-138. [CrossRef] [Medline]
    59. Nesi J, Prinstein MJ. Using social media for social comparison and feedback-seeking: gender and popularity moderate associations with depressive symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol. Nov 2015;43(8):1427-1438. [CrossRef]
    60. Skues JL, Williams B, Wise L. The effects of personality traits, self-esteem, loneliness, and narcissism on Facebook use among university students. Comput Human Behav. Nov 2012;28(6):2414-2419. [CrossRef]
    61. Skues J, Williams BJ, Wise L. Personality traits, boredom, and loneliness as predictors of Facebook use in on-campus and online university students. Int J Cyber Behav Psychol Learn. 2017;7(2):36-48. [CrossRef]
    62. Mandai M, Kaso M, Takahashi Y, et al. Loneliness among mothers raising children under the age of 3 years and predictors with special reference to the use of SNS: a community-based cross-sectional study. BMC Womens Health. Aug 2018;18:1-12. [CrossRef]
    63. Bowden-Green T, Hinds J, Joinson A. Understanding neuroticism and social media: a systematic review. Pers Individ Dif. Jan 2021;168:110344. [CrossRef]

    ‎
    SNS: social networking site

    Edited by Sherif Badawy; submitted 31.03.24; peer-reviewed by Hajime Iwasa, Stella Tsotsi; final revised version received 07.06.24; accepted 03.07.24; published 11.10.24.

    Copyright

    © Ryuta Onishi. Originally published in JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting (https://pediatrics.jmir.org), 11.10.2024.

    This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://pediatrics.jmir.org, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.