This study used a cross-sectional design with a closed web-based questionnaire. To ensure the quality and transparency of research, the work employed the Survey Reporting Checklist (CROSS) developed by Sharma et al [40] and the CHERRIES (Checklist for Reporting Results of Internet E-Surveys) developed by Eysenbach [41]. This study reports a subset of data from the “Information Behavior on Social Networking Services Among Parents Raising Infants” survey.

In this study, SNSs were defined as communication platforms where participants can consume, produce, and interact with a stream of content generated by connections on the site [42]. Specific SNSs considered were X (formerly Twitter), Instagram, Facebook, and YouTube, taking into account the context of Japan. LINE, which is widely known in Japan, was excluded from this category owing to its limited use of the feed function characteristic of SNSs and its primary use as a tool for routine communication with acquaintances. The use of SNSs for parenting was operationally defined as usage to gather information related to parenting, monitoring other families, and building social relationships.

This study included 429 parents of 0- to 3-year-old children. The eligibility criteria required that the participants were actively parenting at least 1 child aged between 0 months and 3 years and 11 months at the time of the survey. There were no restrictions based on the health status of the parents or children or on family structure. The exclusion criterion was the absence of any experience using SNSs for parenting-related activities.

Sampling was conducted using convenience sampling from the national panel managed by Cross Marketing, Inc, a web-based survey company in Japan, which manages more than 5 million active web users and provides academic web-based survey services to a wide range of demographic groups. The company’s active panel comprises a wide variety of web users, creating a large-scale monitor that is not biased by influx from specific sites or advertisements. The recruitment process began with a one-time survey invitation sent by the survey company to a randomly selected group of approximately 2000 individuals deemed eligible for this study. Those who received the invitation first answered a question regarding their child’s age; inconsistent responses were excluded. Subsequently, individuals who agreed to participate in the study were directed to the web-based questionnaire link via a click of an “agree” button after reading the research request document prepared by the authors. The study aimed to include 200 fathers and 200 mothers, and distribution continued randomly until this goal was reached, at which point the survey distribution was halted.

Data were collected in August 2023 using a web-based survey. The questionnaire was developed and administered by the authors using the Qualtrics web-based survey system [43]. Qualtrics ensures data management through encryption, redundancy, continuous monitoring, and single sign-on, and is FedRAMP-authorized as well as ISO27001-certified. The questionnaire was designed by the authors to be user-friendly and was pretested to avoid design issues. Participants who completed the questionnaire received a web-based reward based on Cross Marketing, Inc standards.

The survey included sections on SNS use, SNS use for parenting, psychosocial characteristics, and basic demographics. The questionnaire was developed through the following process. First, the content validity of the questionnaire was reviewed by a researcher (RO) with extensive experience in public health nursing practice and research, who also has experience in child-rearing support. Potential common errors in the questionnaire (eg, double-barreled questions, confusion, and leading questions) were checked by a representative from Cross Marketing Inc, who has extensive experience in designing web-based surveys, and appropriate revisions were made. In addition, face validity for all survey items was ensured through pretesting with 4 university students and 5 mothers with infants and older children. Owing to the limitations of the pretest sample size, the factor structure and internal consistency were confirmed in the main survey. Details of the survey items are shown in Multimedia Appendix 1.

Data were collected with regard to the possession of digital devices (smartphones, tablets), currently used SNSs (X, Instagram, Facebook, YouTube, LinkedIn, etc), and overall frequency of SNS usage by participants. The frequency of SNS usage, based on previous research [34], considered both active and passive usage aspects. Active usage was mainly related to information production (eg, posting updates on SNSs, sending private messages), while passive usage concerned information consumption (eg, scrolling through news feeds and viewing other users’ profiles). The frequency of active and passive SNS usage over the past week was assessed, with response options ranging from 1 (not at all) to 8 (more than 10 times a day).

Considering the lack of a specific scale to measure SNS use for parenting, original measurement items were created. Based on previous studies [44] and interview data from mothers in the parenting phase, 3 categories were formulated for SNS use in parenting: “information gathering,” “monitoring,” and “connecting.” Each category consisted of 2 items, with “information gathering” including items related to gathering information on parenting and children. “Monitoring” included tracking other families’ parenting and their children’s conditions, while “connection” included making friends in parenting and communicating with peers in parenting. Items were measured on a 5-point scale (1=never use to 5=always use), with the mean value calculated within a range of 1‐5, and higher scores indicating greater subjective frequency of use.

An exploratory factor analysis using maximum likelihood promax rotation was conducted to determine the handling of the scale for SNS use in parenting. The applicability of factor analysis was confirmed by ensuring that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was greater than 0.8, and Barlett’s test of sphericity was significant. The number of factors was determined by examining the scree plot and using eigenvalues greater than 1. A factor loading of 4.0 or higher was employed as the criterion for item selection. Reliability was assessed by calculating Cronbach α.

Table 1 shows the results of the exploratory factor analysis. Bartlett’s sphericity test for the 6 items measuring SNS use in parenting was significant (χ²₁₅=2319.43; P<.001), and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin values were above 0.8, confirming the suitability of the data for exploratory factor analysis. Exploratory factor analysis with maximum likelihood promax rotation revealed a 1-factor structure for the 6 items (Table 1). An attempt was made to confirm a 3-factor structure considering the 3 categories, but eigenvalues for the factors after the first were lower than 1, indicating that the model was not suitable. Therefore, the study measured SNS use for parenting by employing the total score of all items, with a Cronbach α value of 0.92.

Data were collected on participants’ age, number of children, age of youngest child, cohabiting family members, occupation, level of education, subjective economic status, and division of childcare and housework.

Initially, descriptive statistics were first applied for all variables in the study, stratified by fathers and mothers. To identify differences between variables for fathers and mothers, t tests or chi-square tests were performed. Thereafter, separate multiple regression models were constructed for mothers and fathers, with psychological distress as the outcome variable and SNS use for parenting, parenting anxiety, and loneliness as predictor variables. Interaction terms between SNS use for parenting and parenting anxiety and loneliness were included in the model to examine their interactions. Covariates included parental age, which influences affinity for digital devices; number of children and age of youngest child, which influence childcare realities; subjective economic status, which was found to be related in univariate analyses; and active or passive use, reflecting the impact of SNS use in contexts other than parenting. Comprehensive checks were undertaken to ensure that the necessary assumptions for the use of multiple regression analysis were met. First, the skewness and kurtosis of the dependent variable were evaluated to ensure that the analysis was not affected by nonnormality. Second, the linear relationship between the dependent and independent variables was visually assessed using scatter plots. Third, the Durbin-Watson ratio was confirmed to be around 2 to ensure the independence of the observations. Fourth, normality and homoscedasticity of errors were visually assessed using normal Q-Q plots of residuals and studentized residuals. Fifth, multicollinearity was assessed by ensuring that the variance inflation factor for independent variables was lower than 10. Moreover, for significant interaction terms, a simple slope analysis [54] was conducted by plotting psychological distress scores at low (−1 SD) and high (+1 SD) levels of loneliness or parenting anxiety at low and high levels of SNS use for parenting.

Statistical analyses were performed using JMP Pro 16.0 (SAS Institute) with a significance level of 5%. Sample size was calculated using G-power, assuming an effect size (f₂) of 0.15 (medium), α error probability of .05, power of 0.8, and a number of predictors of 24, confirming that a sample size of 124 or more was required. In addition, in the analysis, when missing values for psychological distress, loneliness, parenting anxiety, and perceived social support were less than half of the items, missing values were imputed by predicting values based on the least squares method using the nonmissing parts of each scale. If more than half the items were missing, they were treated as missing data. Participants with missing values in nonpsychological scale items were also treated as having missing data. While participants with missing values were included in the analysis because of research ethics, they were excluded from the creation of multiple regression models. During this process, the usage of parenting-related SNSs and other psychological scale scores was compared between participants with missing data and those with no missing data, ensuring that there were no significant differences.

Informed consent and opt-out procedures were implemented as follows. First, individuals referred by the web survey company were provided with written information detailing the study's purpose, the voluntary nature of participation, the absence of any penalties for nonparticipation, the right to refuse to answer, the maintenance of anonymity, the use of data solely for research purposes, and the strict management of personal information. Second, participants were given the choice to either agree or decline participation in the survey; only those who clicked the consent button were considered to have consented to participate, thereby ensuring the opportunity to opt out. In addition, all survey questions included an option to decline to answer. Respondents’ personal information was not disclosed to the researchers, and the data remained fully anonymized, ensuring that researchers had no means of identifying individuals. Participants received digital reward points as compensation for their effort in completing the survey, in accordance with the web survey company’s guidelines. This study was conducted with the approval of the ethics committee for research involving human subjects at Toyama Prefectural University (approval number: R5-16, dated August 10, 2023).

Among those who returned the survey, responses from 429 individuals with experience using SNSs for parenting and no missing data on SNS use were analyzed. Table 2 illustrates the descriptive statistics and differences between mothers (205 individuals; 205/429, 47.8%) and fathers (224 individuals; 224/429, 52.2%). The differences were related to parental age, age of the youngest child, employment status, educational level, and division of childcare and housework. No differences in psychosocial factors were determined between fathers and mothers.

Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics and differences in SNS use between fathers and mothers. As regards digital device ownership, a significantly greater proportion of fathers owned a computer than mothers (χ²₁=25.12; P<.001). In terms of SNS usage, a significantly higher percentage of mothers used Instagram than fathers (χ²₁=41.87; P<.001). The frequency of SNS use showed that mothers were significantly more passive than fathers (t₄₂₇=−2.45; P=.006).

Regarding the frequency of SNS use for parenting, mothers were significantly more likely than fathers to gather parenting (t₄₂₇=−4.62; P<.001) and child-related information (t₄₂₇=−4.24; P<.001), browse parenting insights (t₄₂₇=−2.61; P=.01), and observe childhood moments (t₄₂₇=−3.33; P=.001). The mean scores for the frequency of SNS use for parenting, divided by the number of items, were 2.15 (SD 1.08) for fathers and 2.46 (SD 1.02) for mothers. An independent t test indicated that mothers had significantly higher scores than fathers (t₄₂₇=−3.04; P=.003).

Multiple regression models were created for both mothers and fathers to explain psychological distress with SNS use for parenting, loneliness, parenting anxiety, and covariates (Table 4). The model was constructed for mothers (F _{12, 177}=11.78; P<.001; R²=0.44) and fathers (F _{12, 189}=15.43; P<.001; R²=49.5). In the mothers model, a significant interaction effect was found only between parenting anxiety and SNS use for parenting (b=0.247, SE 0.091; P=.008). Meanwhile, in the fathers model, significant interaction effects were found between loneliness (b=0.324, SE 0.127; P=.01) and parenting anxiety (b=0.144, SE 0.069; P=.04) following SNS use for parenting.

The results of the simple slope analysis are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3. The mothers model showed that, at higher levels of parenting anxiety, SNS use for parenting was related to psychological distress (b=0.304, SE 0.090, β=.317; P<.001) but not at lower levels (b=−0.044, SE 0.090, β=−.046; P=.63). In the fathers model, SNS use for parenting was related to psychological distress at higher levels of parenting anxiety (b=0.330, SE 0.069, β=.346; P<.001) but not at lower levels (b=0.127, SE 0.097, β=.133; P=.19). In addition, SNS use for parenting was associated with psychological distress in fathers at higher levels of loneliness (b=0.390, SE 0.098, β=.409; P<.001) but not at lower levels (b=0.067, SE 0.089, β=.070; P=.45).

This study examined the moderating influence of loneliness and parenting anxiety on the relationship between SNS use for parenting and psychological distress among mothers and fathers of young children. We observed that mothers used parenting-related SNSs more frequently than fathers, primarily for gathering parenting information and monitoring others’ parenting activities. In addition, parenting anxiety moderated the relationship between SNS use for parenting and psychological distress in both genders, whereas the effect of loneliness was discernible only in fathers. Therefore, hypotheses 1 and 2 were fully supported and hypothesis 3 was partially supported. This novelty in our findings suggests the presence of both common and divergent elements in dynamics through which SNS use in parenting precipitates psychological distress in fathers and mothers. Previous research on SNS use and mental health has shown that the quality of interactions on SNSs (positive or negative) [55] and the attitude toward their use (passive or active) [56] can result in either positive or negative impacts on mental health. A systematic review of the relationship between SNS use, loneliness, and social anxiety [29] found that high levels of loneliness and social anxiety are correlated with problematic SNS use. However, it also highlighted the need for studies that simultaneously address these factors to explore their complex interrelationships. Most studies focusing on SNS use, loneliness, and anxiety have concentrated on adolescents, where SNS research is prevalent, leaving limited insights into both fathers and mothers in the context of early childhood parenting. This study extends previous findings by specifically examining SNS use in parenting and simultaneously addressing loneliness and anxiety to explore their moderating effects.

First, the moderating role of parenting anxiety was substantiated for both fathers and mothers regarding the association between SNS use in parenting and psychological distress. This suggests that parents struggling with heightened parenting anxiety may inadvertently exacerbate their psychological distress when using SNSs to cope with parenting challenges. An earlier study demonstrated that using information from smart devices to alleviate parenting concerns can paradoxically amplify anxiety when those concerns are severe [44]. Our findings align with previous research, hinting at the limited benefit for highly anxious parents in seeking comfort through SNSs. The background of psychological distress experienced by fathers and mothers with high parenting anxiety owing to SNS use may be related to low parenting self-efficacy and self-esteem, which are correlated with anxiety [27]. It is conceivable that parents burdened with acute parenting anxiety lack buffers such as self-efficacy and self-esteem against negative web-based influences, making them more vulnerable to psychological distress. In addition, parents prone to parenting anxiety inherently possess neurotic traits, which may foster upward social comparisons on SNSs and lead to increased psychological distress [57].

Second, the moderating effect of loneliness was observed solely among fathers, indicating that only those with significant levels of loneliness showed a strong correlation between intensive SNS use for parenting and high psychological distress. In general, higher levels of loneliness correlate with lower socioeconomic status [58]. In Japan, a persistent belief in gender roles assigns work responsibilities to men and domestic and child-rearing responsibilities to women [36]. Fathers of young children may identify strongly with the role of breadwinner and feel a deep sense of duty and pride. For fathers who feel isolated owing to socioeconomic constraints, SNS platforms that facilitate peer comparison [23] may exacerbate feelings of inadequacy regarding their family parenting practices, thus fostering psychological distress. Similarly, fathers who experience loneliness following strained partner relationships may face psychological distress from upward comparisons to seemingly idyllic families on SNSs. Furthermore, the lack of SNS platforms that naturally facilitate information sharing and camaraderie among fathers in the parenting domain may have also contributed to the distress experienced by lonely fathers. While social media and platforms for pregnant women and mothers are prevalent, there is a dearth of resources for fathers, including face-to-face peer support [39]. On more open platforms such as Instagram, X, and Facebook, fathers may find opportunities to connect with their peers, but in environments in Japan with strong gender-role divisions [36], they are likely to encounter more mother-centered information exchange. The use of SNSs in the context of fathers seeking connections and information sharing in parenting may have exacerbated psychological distress by creating a sense of alienation among them.

It is worth noting that no moderating effect of loneliness among mothers could be determined. This suggests that, regardless of loneliness, increasing SNS use for parenting among mothers is indicative of psychological distress. Previous studies have suggested that women experience significantly higher levels of depression owing to social comparisons on social media than men [59]. Mothers, as opposed to fathers, may be more susceptible to the mental health detriments of SNS use, regardless of whether or not they experience loneliness. In addition, the literature presents conflicting views on whether SNSs contribute positively by fostering desired social relationships [60,61] or negatively by forming unsatisfactory social connections for lonely individuals [18]. Previous research demonstrated that, for mothers in the parenting phase, the extent of their social networks on SNSs is inversely related to feelings of loneliness [62], suggesting that SNSs may not necessarily accentuate negative effects for lonely mothers.

Furthermore, given that this study is cross-sectional, there is the possibility of a reverse causal relationship, where parents with high levels of loneliness and parenting anxiety may engage more actively in SNS use for parenting because of their high psychological distress. Previous research reported that individuals with neurotic tendencies, which precede psychological distress, tend to use social media excessively or compulsively [63]. It is possible that parents experiencing high psychological distress, along with loneliness and parenting anxiety, may inherently possess neurotic tendencies and, consequently, may frequently use SNSs for parenting.

This study highlights the differences in the moderating effects of loneliness and parenting anxiety on the relationship between SNS use and psychological distress among parents. It was observed that both fathers and mothers experiencing heightened levels of loneliness or parenting anxiety reported that SNS use in parenting activities was associated with increased psychological distress. This observation suggests that SNS use may not always be beneficial for parents experiencing loneliness or parenting anxiety, and it might be useful for professionals to discuss the potential drawbacks of relying heavily on SNSs for parenting support. Conversely, it is also suggested that parents experiencing high psychological distress, along with loneliness and parenting anxiety, may use SNSs frequently for parenting. As SNSs might serve as necessary support for parents in distress, it is crucial for professionals to support its moderate use while considering the limitations of its benefits. Given that SNS use for parenting is more common among mothers, it is important for professionals to recognize mothers as a group potentially more susceptible to both the positive and negative impacts of SNS use. Finally, enhancing SNS platforms specifically for lonely fathers as a parenting resource may be beneficial.

This study has several limitations. First, owing to its cross-sectional design, causality cannot be established. Second, the study relies on self-reported questionnaires, which does not eliminate the possibility of information bias. Third, the use of convenience sampling by a specific survey company in Japan may have introduced selection bias. Specifically, the sample may have been biased toward those with a high affinity for web-based information and high information literacy, thus limiting the generalizability of the results. Fourth, the study did not use a validated scale to measure SNS use for parenting, and although it considered real-life parenting situations through interview data, it lacks clear conceptualization and validation of construct validity, limiting the accuracy of the phenomenon measured. Fifth, the study did not consider the information literacy of the participants. Future research should use scales that more accurately measure the concept of SNS use in parenting. In addition, because a bidirectional causal relationship between SNS use and mental health is assumed, longitudinal studies that test for causality could provide higher-resolution insights into SNS use and parenting mental health.

This study examined the moderating effects of loneliness and parenting anxiety on the relationship between SNS use and psychological distress among parents of young children. The moderating effect of parenting anxiety on this relationship was confirmed for both fathers and mothers, but the moderating effect of loneliness was established only for fathers. Given that different mechanisms underlie the loneliness experienced by fathers and mothers, the impact of SNS use on mental health may differ. Health and medical professionals might well need to tailor guidelines for SNS use in parental support taking into account gender. For fathers, a cautious approach to SNS use when feeling lonely is recommended, while for mothers, guidance on how to effectively balance SNS use with other support resources based on the level of parenting concerns may be needed.